‘On the road to Olympia…there is a precipitous mountain…with big rocks, called Typaion. There is an Elean rule that any woman who has been seen at the <Olympic> Games or has crossed the <River> Alpheios during the forbidden days shall be pitched headlong from the summit’ (Pausanias, Eliaka V.6.7)

Chapter 6.   THE “NO – WOMEN” RULE IN ANCIENT

OLYMPIA: ‘MACHO’ MYTH OR REALITY?

It is rather certain that some feminists will be somewhat frustrated by Pausanias’ citation seen above. Historical facts or sources however, cannot be ignored or judged as hearsay. Moreover, in contrast to the causes of ‘modern’ women world wide, I find the old man’s text on the Elean rule, which allowed no lady to enter the sacred Altis, very amusing and rather worth mentioning

As a matter of fact, Mt. Typaion is not a huge mountain after all. It is just a small hill of about 150 meters (490 ft) of rock formations, located near the site ‘Hagia Eleoussa’, northwest of the modern village of Krestaina. Funnily enough, a later gentleman going by the name of Pierre baron de Coubertin was of the same opinion as the ancient Eleans. In a speech he delivered some 108 years ago, he proposed a strict interdiction to ‘modern’ women-athletes at the revived Olympics when the subject was brought up in 19^th century Paris.

Was that ‘Elean rule’ an appalling example of ancient Greek ‘macho’ mentality? Well, not exactly. The cruel ban of women was only applicable to the married ones, as the same old Pausanias states elsewhere that ‘virgins were not refused entry’, thus making a remarkably cute pun. My guess is that married women were somewhat rejected, and in some way refused entry because they were considered unacceptable in ‘sacred’ sites, temples or ceremonies at the Altis, where the ‘divine’ Olympics were held.

In an effort to appease the justifiable anger or  ‘fighting spirit’ of modern ladies, I add here that although married women were not allowed at Olympia, their virgin colleagues could, and did hold their “only-women” festival. It was also held at Olympia and was called ‘Heraia’, since it was dedicated to Hera, the jealous wife of Zeus. The ‘lady contests’ lasted one extra day at the end of each Olympiad, and consisted of only one athlon, the dromos [foot race]. The dromos was subdivided into three classes for girls of different ages and was run on a shorter track of the Stadion. The track’s length was shortened by one-sixth so as to measure 160 m., whereas the distance run by men measured 192 m (ca. 600 ft). Winning girls at the Heraia were crowned with olive wreaths, just like their male counterparts at Olympia. If the fact that the ‘manly’ contests were held in August-September (Gr: Apollonios-Parthenios) alternatively were to be accounted, it would be easy to deduce that Hera Parthenia should not be insulted…

Girls would also receive portions of the cow sacrificed to Hera, just like men who were allowed to share the sacrificial bull to Zeus. Moreover, each victorious girl retained the privilege to set up her effigy in the temple of Hera, like the male victors, who were allowed to dedicate their statues to Zeus. The temple of the goddess whose symbol was the cow (as opposed to Zeus’ bull) was probably built c. 1100 BCΕ. Ηence the Heraia may have started before the male Olympia. A plethora of bronze statuettes dating ca. 500 BCE and found at archaeological sites depict female runners of superb physical beauty (Spartans? One bears Helen in mind) who look exactly as Pausanias described them centuries later by stating that, ‘...their right shoulder is bare to the right breast’ [Fig. 6.1, 6.2].

Fig 6.1 (left): Bronze statuette of a girl runner. Provenance: Prisrend, Yugoslavia (an ancient Macedonian site), c. 520-500 BCE, British Museum. This bronze figurine is thought to be Laconian, made in Sparta (or Taras in southern Italy). The young girl’s appearance corresponds to the description of Pausanias [‘…they bare the right shoulder as far as the right breast’] made seven centuries later. The girl is running to the right, looking over her shoulder as she goes. She wears a short tunic, which leaves her right breast bare, and is bare-footed. As her long hair streams down over her shoulders held by a diadem, she is using her left hand to hold the tunic on her powerful legs. Spartan girls were famous for exercising with boys, and made history by winning most of the Heraian foot runs. Right: a similar statuette from Dodona, sixth century BCE.

Fig 6.2. Black-figured hydria depicting a scene of  women running at the Heraia. Museum of the Vatican. Dedicated to goddess Hera the Heraian festival for women was held at alternate Olympiads

at the stadium of Olympia but the distance run by the ladies was shorter by one-sixth.

Actually, Pausanias is our sole literary source on the subject of women competing against each other, although there are archaeological finds such as painted vases of women using strigils or buried with strigils to prove women were probably competing against men. But let us return to the account of Pausanias:

‘Every fourth year the Sixteen Women weave a head cover for Hera. These also hold a contest called Heraia, which consists of foot races for unmarried [virgin] girls. Not all [virgins] who compete have the same age. The youngest run first, then the next oldest, and finally the oldest girls of all. They run as follows: their hair is let down, a chiton reaches to a little above the knee, and they bare the right shoulder as far as the right breast. The Olympic stadium is reserved for their contest too, but the track is shortened by about one-sixth for the girls. The winners are given crowns of olive leaves and a portion of the cow sacrificed to Hera. They may also dedicate inscribed images of themselves. Those who work under the Sixteen [Women] who hold the contest are, like them, married women. The girl contest is traced back to ancient times. They say that Hippodameia was grateful to Hera for her marriage with Pelops, and so assembled the Sixteen Women and inaugurated the Heraia with them. It is also said that among the winners was Chloris, the daughter of Amphion, and was the only survivor of her family’ [V.16.2].

In a rare instance of his classical work on the Cretan Politeia the Athenian philosopher Plato went as far as to fervently advocate the sports of running and fencing for girls, naked up until age 13 and modestly attired until 18, and (at the oldest) 20. Plato was probably inspired by his admiration for the supreme power of Sparta. The one and only element in his treatise that finds me in disagreement is his conviction that young girls past the age of 13 should wear ‘appropriate robes’ (sic). I frankly don’t see why. Girls or boys can run or wrestle better when they are undressed.

No written evidence exists to justify or clarify the Elean, Olympic-sized sex discrimination, and we rest ignorant as to why those men were so hard with women. It seems that the phenomenon is one more instance of male, religious conservatism, if not fanaticism. Women cannot step beyond the sacred temple in any modern Orthodox or Catholic Church. Until present, they are not allowed to become priests and, surely, no Popes. Eons of harmful forms of religion ha-ve prevailed over principles such as equal opportunity and non-discrimination. However, the fanaticism over the participation of women at Hellenic festivals was not destined to last for long, fortunately. As Dio Chrysostom concluded in opposing the old Elean ‘no-women rule’ at later times, ‘even women of dubious character were allowed to the Pan-Hellenic festivals…’   

I concur, and it seems so did the Spartans. Also Peloponnesian and no less proud than the Eleans, Spartan men allowed their girls to take part freely at every ‘boy contest’. Building tough and physically fit mothers was the major object-ive of a militant matriarchal society such as Sparta. Giving birth to good soldier-boys was primordial, and Spartan mothers saw to that. Dominant over their war-bound sons, they pronounced the following immortal phrase each ti-me they handed the family’s shield to their offsprings: ‘Either (bring) this or (die on) this’.  This extraordinary maternal command must have been implanted into the mind of every Spartan hero for life. It has certainly haunted more than a few generations of males through the Greek history. Although Herr Dr. Freud coined the term ‘Oedipus complex’ to describe the relationship, it seems a rather unsuccessful term, which more or less demeans and insults both men and mothers.  

Let us return to all those married, religious or virgin ladies at Olympia. One particular married woman was exceptionally authorized to witness every Olympic contest. Bearing the name Chamyne, which literally means ‘sitting down’ (or ‘seated on the ground’), she served as priestess to Demeter, the goddess of fertility and vegetation. Seated on a large marble altar dedicated to Demeter, the old lady watched all those boys, men and contests across the northern bank of the Stadion. She must have enjoyed every moment of it.

My personal heroine however, is another lady I profoundly respect for her total disrespect for male-imposed rules. The ‘blasphemous’ lady, known to have gained entry to the Games by fraud, went by the names of Kallipateira [best-fathered] or Pherenike [victory-bringer]. In my opinion, that confusion regarding the Rhodian lady’s true name may have been caused by Pausanias rather unintentionally, as he visited Olympia several centuries later and based his text on Elean hearsay. I prefer to use Pherenike in respect of his phrase referring to her unparalleled exploit in sufficient detail [Eliaka V.6.7]:

‘They (the Eleans) claim that no woman has ever gained access <to Olympia> except

Kallipateira alone. There are some (Eleans), who call her Pherenike and not Kallipateira’

Pherenike must have been ‘alpha female’ with lots of character. Married to a noble Rhodian, she was the daughter of Diagoras, a top boxer who won at the 79^th Olympiad (464 BCE), and sister to no less than three Olympic victors (Acusilaos, Dorieus and Damagetos). She had lost her husband at a young age. Naturally, she took over her son’s training, but did not stop at that. At the 94^th Olympiad (404 BCE), artfully disguised as man-trainer, she brought her son Peisirodos to Olympia, entered the for-bidden Altis and watched him compete at the pygme paidon [boy’s boxing]. Her son won, of course, as did his cousin Eukles, in the men’s boxing. In her excitement upon hearing her boy’s name announced as victor by the heralds, Pherenike lost her cool and forgot her disguise for a moment. She leaped over the barrier of the Palaistra [ring], which served as a trainers’ enclosure, to smother her son with kisses. In doing so her male disguise, a long chiton, was torn apart accidentally, exposing her femininity to the public and, what is worse, to the eyes of the Hellanodikai judges of the contest.

The wise Elean judges known for their fairness and good taste pardoned the well-intentioned mother after some discussions, in deference of her father’s memory. Having worked so hard to turn her son into an Olympic victor, the heroic widow was also recognized for having no less than five more victors in her family. Laymen and judges alike whether strict or lenient respected brave women in ancient Greece. They still do.

The witty decision of the judges to let the young widow go unpunished was sensible. Just as wise and sensible was their next decision taken as soon as they convened again. A new rule was enacted requiring trainers, just like athletes, to disrobe upon entering the Altis at future Olympia. The only exception to that rule was the trainers and athletes who competed at the ‘hippika’, i.e., the equestrian contests, at which everyone was required to be dressed.

Though forbidden to train or compete at Olympia, some women managed to bypass or bend the ‘men-only’ rule and win olive wreaths just the same. Besides, they were used to competing against men long before the Elean rules. In prehistoric times, Atalante helped Meleagros to kill the Caledonian boar, and also wrestled Peleas at the funeral games of King Pelias (Fig 6.3).

Fig 6.3 Black-figured amphora, sixth century BCE, Antikensammlungen, Munich. Atalante, after helping Meleagros to hunt and kill the Caledonian boar, wrestled Peleus at the funeral contests in honor of King Pelias. The heroine is depicted here having already won over one male adversary (shown on the ground) as she attempts a headlock on Peleus.

Women were renowned for their dexterity in riding or driving chariots as early as the 14^th century BCE (Fig 6.4, 6.5), and had always been smarter than what men thought. How did this rule bending happen, and at which Olympiad? More than six years of research in dust-filled libraries were necessary to find answers to these questions.

Fig 6.4 (left). Attican red-figured hydria from the Etruscan tomb of the Ania family at Vulci (1828), c. 500 BCE. Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich. The painting on the shoulder of this vase depicts four Amazons yoking their horses to a tethrippon. The zygioi [yoke horses] are harnessed, and one of the Amazons holds them still as another holds the chariot. The seiraphoroi [trace horses] are being led into position from right and left. Three Amazons are clad in chitons; the fourth wears a Skythian attire with a pair of trousers and a tall Skythian hat. Right: Mosaic from the “House of Orpheus”, Paphos, Cyprus. The legend of the Amazons, who founded the city of Mytilene on Lesbos and built the temple of Artemis at Ephesus before reaching Cyprus, seems to have been honored in locally, from the prehistoric to the Roman era.

Fig 6.5. Detail on a fresco from a sarcophagus found at the Minoan palace at Hagia Triada, ca. 1400 BC (Late Minoan III). The scene depicts two ladies driving a synoris (biga) with dexterity. The resemblance of this fresco with the one seen on the cover of the book and dating to the

same era with Mycenaean Tiryns is remarkable

Rule bending occurred at the hippika contests, of course. The Elean ‘no-women’ law forbade women to enter the Altis, but there was no law preventing a woman, single or married, young or old, from entering her horses and colts at the flat or chariot races. As far as we know, it took only a short time for six smart ladies to detect the flaw in the law and march into the Altis triumphantly. The first and most famous to do so was none other than princess Kyniska [Gr: young puppy], daughter and sister of two kings, Archidamas and Agesilaos of Sparta.

Some years after Kyniska’s exploits, Xenophon claimed that it was her brother Agesilaos who prompted Kyniska to enter the tethrippon race at the Olympic hippodrome with the argument that ‘victory marks a person of wealth rather than merit’ [Ages.ΙΧ.6]. Centuries later Plutarch claimed ‘victory is not the result of virtue, but (only) of richness and expenses’ [Ages. 20.1]. In other words, Agesilaos wanted to prove to Kyniska that victory at the horse games largely depends on the horse’s value and the fortune of the owner, but not the skills of the rider or driver. Pausanias opposed this theory and felt that Kyniska made her move driven by the ambition of ‘winning over men’ [III.8.1]. I tend to agree with Pausanias, but I would change his phrase to ‘winning over Athenian men’. One should not forget it was Kyniska’s father Archidamos who had started the thirty-year long Peloponnesian war of Sparta against Athens.

Regardless of her personal feelings, Kyniska did achieve her goals, as has every ambitious woman in the history of mankind. In fact, the Spartan princess won not just one, but two back-to-back tethrippon victories within a time span of four years, becoming a stephanites [wreath bearer] at the 96^th and 97^th Olympiads of 396 and 392 BCE. Celebrating her horse team’s triumphs, Kyniska built no less than two bronze statues at Olympia not far from the statue of Theagenes of Thasos. The inscription chiseled by Apelleas on the base of the larger memorial and saved meticulously by Pausanias, was found almost intact after twenty-four centuries. The tetrastichon [four-line] epigraph is a true hymn to fast horses and brave women [VI.1.7].

‘Spartan [kings were my] fathers and brothers/ and with chariot and storming horses, Kyniska/ wins and places this effigy, and proclaims that/ of all women of Greece only I bore the wreath’/  [Fig 6.6]

Fig 6.6. Kynisca’s inscription at the base of the statue she dedicated at the Altis to honor her victories. Archaeological Museum of Olympia

I truly believe that Kyniska deserves this pompous inscription composed with remarkable lack of modesty. The Spartan girl was the first female in Greek history to discover flaws in man-made rules and ridicule them. She proved to ancient and modern men alike that it is the horses that make the difference between victory and defeat and not ‘manhood’. Moreover, she proved to be brave enough to antagonize men in the hardest equestrian contest and come out as a winner. Above all, Kyniska set a unique example of female dominance in its best form, sports.

Just one generation later, Kyniska’s Lacaedemonian compatriot Euryleonis took her Synoris to the 103^rd Olympiad of 362 BCE, and repeated the precedent set by the pioneer princess. The adult horse team of Euryleonis won the first place, she bore the olive wreath, and became the second stephanites [crown-bearer] female in the long Olympic history.

Less than one century later, a third young lady, Belistiche of ‘thalassia Macedon’ repeated the Spartan girls’ exploits by winning the polikon tethrippon [four-colt chariot] at the 128^th Olympia (268 BCE). My Macedonian compadre went ahead to win one more crown back to back, just as her Spartan predecessor had done, at the polike synoris [two-colt chariot]. Belistiche who came from the seaport polis [thalassa = sea] of Alexandrai, topped the record set by Kyniska since colts are harder to race than horses due to their young age. Belistiche was the girlfriend of Ptolemy Philadelphos. She was also the subject of dispute. Historians present her either as a Mycenaean descendant [Athen. 13.596a], or as a barbarian slave [Plut. Mor. 753]! It seems that some anti-Macedonians looked down on Ptolemy so they preferred to consider her victory as a Ptolemaic ‘show-off’ or ‘trophy wife’ rather than accept the enormous impetus behind her hippic career. Trophy wife or slave, however, the girl who ‘came from nowhere’ has left her own mark in the Greek history of hippika and feminism. In doing so, she justified the etymology of her name, which derives from the Latin bellum and stix, meaning war and order.

As if the feminine exploits at the hippika of Olympia were not enough, the wife and three daughters of Polycrates of Argos (governor of the Ptolemaic Cyprus) were listed as victors at the Panathenaia, from 190 to 178 BCE. They filled their father with pride, and humiliated the macho mentality of the Athenians who, along with Plato, preferred their women to be ‘quiet and invisible’. The girls of Polycrates proved that women other than invisible could also be invincible. Once

started, Greek women could not be stopped by men’s rules. The next ladies to prove men wrong were two more natives of Peloponnese, Timareta and Theodota, both from Elis, the heart of the ‘no-women’ law. At the 174^th Olympiad (84 BCE), the horses of Timareta’s synoris finished ahead of those owned by her male opponents, and Theodota’s polikon tethrrippon won one more wreath for a lady owner. Last but not least, right in the middle of the Ro-man controlled 233^rd Olympiad (153 CE), a lady-citizen of Elis by the name of Kasia M[nasithea] took her four-colt tethrippon to the nearby Olympic hippodrome, and won one more wreath, becoming the sixth and last woman to humiliate her male contestants who had invented the ‘no women’ principle.

As if the first six women were not enough, other brave girls were victorious at hippika and gymnika of several festivals outside Olympia. A young girl, Hedea of Tralleis (Caesarea) at chariot races-in-armor at Corinth and stadion runs at Nemea and Sikyon in the first century CE [SIG.2.802]. Hedea’s sister Dionysia, also a stadion-racer, won at the Isthmian and Epidaurian festivals. Finally, the third sister Tryphosa won the stadion at Delphi and Corinth filling their father Hermesianax with pride for his Spartan origins.

As for royal victors one should not forget the queens Arsinoe and Berenike Ι, ΙΙ, both winners at the hippika of Olympia, Nemea and Alexadria and praised in epigrams by the poet Poseidippos of Pella [Table 6.I, Fig 6.7]. One of his best epigrams praising the victories of Berenice’s royal family, the 78^th, is below:

SING, ALL YE BARDS, MY FAME, IF IT PLEASES YOU

TO SPEAK OF WHAT IS KNOWN FOR MY GLORY GOES BACK A LONG WAY.

MY GRANDFATHER <PTOLEMY> WON WITH HIS CHARIOT,

DRIVING HIS TEAM ON THE RACE-COURSES AT PISA,

AS DID BERENICE, MY FATHER’S MOTHER. THEN AGAIN WITH HIS CHARIOT

MY FATHER WAS VICTORIOUS, A KING SON OF A KING

BEARING HIS FATHER’S NAME. AND ALL THREE VICTORIES IN HARNESS RACES

WERE WON BY ARSINOE IN A SINGLE <OLYMPIC> FESTIVAL.

I NOW HONOR MY FATHER’S SACRED CLAN AND ‘WOMEN’S PRIDE’

IS THE NAME I AM GIVEN AS THE VIRGIN <QUEEN>.

OLYMPIA SAW <THESE TRIUMPHS FROM> A SINGLE HOUSE

AND THE CHILDREN’S CHILDREN WINNING PRIZES WITH THEIR CHARIOTS.

CELEBRATE, O YE MACEDONIANS, QUEEN BERENICE’S CROWN

FOR HAVING BEEN VICTORIOUS WITH HER ADULT FOUR-HORSE TEAM.

Consequently, the infamous no-women or ‘men only’ rules of the Eleans could be discarded as pure myth or hearsay. Several Greek women, coming from regions as distant as Macedonia, Caesarea, Cyprus or Peloponnese saw to that and won wreaths. Following a tradition set by the amazons northern and southern girls alike, with bravery and smart thinking, proved to the ‘exclusively’ male sports world that women can outrun, out-ride and outsmart any male, including the manliest rider, chariot driver or runner.

Fig 6.7 left: coin of Ptolemy II (309-247) and marble head of his sister Arsinoe (316-270 BCE). Right: gold octadrachm of Berenike II, wife of Ptolemy III (247-222 BCE), from Ephesus.

One of the best poems written by Poseidippos was composed in her honor.

Nonetheless, traces of macho mentality did persist in the long Olympic history to pester the revived modern Olympics. The machismo exhibited by Pierre de Coubertin at the moment he announced that women should be excluded from the Olympics was shared by every male member of the Commission in 19^th-century France. The baron long opposed women athletics. ‘At the Olympic Games’, he said, ‘their primary role should be as in the ancient tournaments [sic]: to crown men victors with laurels’. Women did not compete in track and field events until the Amsterdam Games of 1928, only after the baron’s retirement.  In fact, that 800 m race ended with a world record and several women sprawled on the track. The sight so upset the IOC traditionalists’ that they voted to drop women’s track and field from the 1932 games, and only relented in the face of threats of a boycott of men’s events. But long races were abandoned, not to return until 1960 in Rome. Even then, a French sportscaster called his compatriots to ”…take account of the natural suppleness and fragility of the feminine body... and respect the role of the future ‘maman’ so as sports do not suppress or damage this role”.

In reality, the ancient Eleans seem more polite than ‘modern’ Europeans. Sixteen women were selected from the eight ‘phylai ’[clans] of Elis to organize the ‘women-only’ festivals and were given the task to weave an exquisite ‘peplon’ dedicated to Hera, patron of the Heraia. In their subtle way, one wonders, did Elean men wish to hint to their wives and daughters that their job was to stay home in the same way as did the Athenians in Plato’s times? (Fig 6.8)

I suppose we shall never know…

Fig 6.8. Attican black-figured epinetron (tool for weaving wool), sixth century BCE. Louvre, Paris. The scenes on the sides of this artifact depict fighting amazons (top) and Greek ladies, probably Athenian, working at home (bottom). The bell-shaped epinetron was open on one side allowing its placement on the leg to pass the wool on its grooves. The five classy ladies are working and chatting as opposed to the three manly Amazons. These two different portraits show the social status of women in Plato’s classical Athens, and the antithesis between the ‘ideal’ woman and the horror that would be unleashed if the proper social order (set by men) were disturbed. Last but not least, they provide the most plausible explanation regarding the Elean ‘No Women Rule’…

TABLE 6.I. WOMEN VICTORS AT HIPPICA OF OLYMPIA (4^th century BCE–1^st CE)*

* BCE= before the Christian era, CE= Christian era** poet-epigrammatist from Pella of the third century CE